Equality is part of democracy’s infrastructure
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Formal equality does not guarantee equal citizenship [1] . Although modern constitutional systems grant the same legal rights to all citizens, differences in income, wealth, education, health, social status, and institutional access determine how effectively those rights can be used. People with greater resources can obtain better legal assistance, influence policy, access decision-makers, and shape public debate. Economic inequality consequently becomes political, legal, and epistemic inequality. Substantive citizenship can be assessed through a rights-use test [2] : Can a person know the right, reach the responsible institution, afford the procedure, present relevant evidence, obtain a timely and reasoned decision, and secure implementation without disproportionate risk? Substantive equality does not require identical outcomes or the elimination of every difference in resources and influence. It requires institutions to examine whether a rule, practice, or distribution create...
